Qulaity in Human Resource Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 11000 words

Qulaity in Human Resource Managment - Essay Example Several researches and philosophies have been obtained by different researchers intending to improve the quality of human resource management in business organizations. For this particular review of literature, nine of such philosophies have been selected that are reviewed below. Evans and Lindsay (2008) in their studies discussed about Crosby’s philosophy of quality in human resources management. Philip B. Crosby was associated with International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) where he remained the corporate vice president for quality serving for a period of 14 years. He determined some of the essential elements of quality improvement that were named as Crosby’s Absolutes of Quality Management. According to his philosophy, â€Å"quality means conformance to requirements, not elegance† thus focusing on the fact that requirements in terms of quality need to be clearly stated such that misunderstandings do not occur (Evans and Lindsay 2008). It is the responsibility of the management to set the requirements trying to avoid non-conformances. The philosophy explains that there are no direct problems related to quality; rather problems are caused by departments that are in responsibility of managing and sustaining quality of work and productiv ity, for example, problems of manufacturing, problems of design, and so on (Evans and Lindsay 2008). According to Crosby, economical problems do not arise with quality management if the right job is done at the right time. Performance can only be measures in terms of the cost of the quality that reflects the cost of non-conformance. The basic elements that Crosby determined for improvement of quality included determination, education, and implementation. The top management of an organization needs to consider the quality improvement process seriously and make effective use of the managerial and organizational resources towards achieving such quality (Evans and Lindsay 2008). Wolper (2004) discussed in his studies

A Guide in Analyzing Movies Essay Example for Free

A Guide in Analyzing Movies Essay Watching movies is one of the best ways to relax, enjoy, and learn. Some people watch movies for recreational purposes, while others do this to learn new ideas or things. However, as a movie progresses into its climax, one would notice that he or she is getting involved in the movie by thinking how the conflict will be resolved. After watching the movie, a reaction or feedback is drawn as one tries to communicate or narrate the story to someone who has not watched the film. Reactions are mostly about the content of the movies and little on its technical aspect. This is true especially if the movie is based on a real life story, romance, or a story of nationalistic concern. If the theme of a movie is scientific or an adaptation of a fictional novel, most audience critics the film based on the technical aspect of the production. Whether the audience is reacting positively or negatively on the content of the movie or whether the audience is critiquing the film’s technical production, he or she is already in the process of analyzing the film. There are different approaches from which to analyze a movie, and these approaches may depend on the genre of the film one had watched and wanted to analyze. Yet, in order for one to write a movie analysis, he or she must first know the different components of a film which include the theme, story, plot, characters or actors, acting, cinematography, and technical aspect such as lightning, music and sound effects, camera shots, and editing. Feedback about the film depends on the mixture of these components; such mixing is done by the film director. He or she acts as if he or she is cooking a delicacy that will be judged by his or her customer. This essay discusses the basic guideline on how to analyze a film and how meaning in the film should be interpreted. Again, this guideline may vary depending on the type of the movie one is trying to analyze. A cine-magazine, for example, contains different topics; thus, there is little unity on the scenes. Uniformity of style and treatment are not given too much consideration because cine-magazine contains different stories. The scenes in an educational film, on the other hand, have greater unity because it is normally devoted to a single subject, such as the evolution of man or the process of respiratory system. A documentary film, in contrast, goes further. It has a single subject that presents or advances an argument. Having these in mind, the critical consideration when analyzing a movie lies on the theme (message or relevance of the film), story (which include the plot, storylines and dialogues, characters, and other symbolic elements such as costume and set up), cinematography and screenplay, and technical components like music, lights, camera shots, and transitions due to editing. Analyzing the Content of a Movie In analyzing the content of a film, critics must look deeply into the movie’s theme, story, plot and storyline and dialogues. Moreover, he or she must also consider the characters and their relationship with the story and other actors, the setting where the shots took place, and the sequence of scenes. The Theme The theme is important, for this shows the relevance of the film in the current time. This also represents the purpose of the director or the goal that the film is trying to communicate to the audience. Boggs and Petrie (2008) identified some goals the movies try to convey. This includes entertaining the viewer, providing a character sketch of a renowned personality, or increasing the audiences awareness on a certain issue of nationalistic or personal concern. Meanwhile, if the movie is in abstract terms wherein the movie tends to create confusion on its theme, one may just describe or narrate the movie to someone who has not watched it, and the theme will come out. As Boggs and Petrie (2008) put it, when an audience narrates a story they have just read or watched, the tendency is that they will describe first the events that made the strongest effect or impression to them. Aside from the major theme, some movies have minor themes which are not substantive enough to be regarded as a full theme. Movie critics call this motif. Motifs are ideas or symbols which are repeated throughout the movie but are not identified as a major theme. Examples of motifs are personalized advertising, identity recognition, technology validation, and symbols which embody all-seeing beings. These are mostly evident in a company or organization-sponsored movies. In the movie â€Å"Knowing† which stars Nicholas Cage as John the Cosmology professor, the major theme is about knowing or predicting events (usually accident or tragedy) that will occur in the near future. Events are predicted through the use of a number arranged in a pattern on a written paper. After decoding this pattern, John tasked himself to solve the mystery, warn the public, and stop the predicted tragedy from taking place. Motifs seen in the film are the repeated appearance of unusual beings (aliens who look like human) and the appearance of black stones. The repetitive appearance of these two could not be regarded as a major theme such as alien invasion; instead, they serve as a clue for John to solve the mystery (Blumenthal, Tisch, Black Proyas, 2009). The Story After identifying the theme of the movie, the critic can now proceed to dissecting the story that the film is trying to narrate to the audience. A film story is composed of the plot, the characters, and the symbolic element. In analyzing a movie story, one must carefully and critically look at the storyline and dialogues that were used in the movie. Moreover, to analyze a story is to look whether the plot flows easily from one scene to another, thus making the film realistic or believable. According to Boggs and Petrie (2008), in analyzing a plot, one should explore the time element used in the movie (linear, nonlinear) and the relationship of the scenes portrayed in the climax and in the ending of the film. Are the use of time element and the scenes believable? Does the plot convey a universal truth about the world or human nature, or is it just a fantastic adaptation of truth? One should also take into account if the actors are being realistic on their actions, facial expressions, delivery of dialogue, and manner of wearing their costume. Are the characters credible in making the audience believe that they are part of the whole reality? This is important because even if the movie has a fascinating and catchy cinematography, the movie will result in a catastrophe if the dialogues are not appealing or interesting and the dialogue delivery by the actors is poor and not convincing. In the film â€Å"Knowing,† the plot was presented in a linear (time) manner in which the scenes developed from less complicated to more complex portrayal. The film was able to explain how the conflict arrived (this was narrated in the first part of the movie), and the solution to the conflict, as expected, was presented in the denouement. However, the incorporation of the alien beings in the story makes it unbelievable, and the given solution to the problem was not viable. In the film, aliens were portrayed as the savior of mankind. They are the ones predicting the occurrence of the tragedy or accident and communicating it to human beings with the use of numbers. They were also the ones to decide who will die and who will be saved to continue the race of the living (Blumenthal, Tisch, Black Proyas, 2009). On the other hand, the characters in the movie are presented effectively such that their actions and dialogues depict the theme and the story of the movie that the filmmakers are trying to relate to the audience. John is a cosmology professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His son is Caleb, a seven-year old boy with a hearing defect so he is using hearing aid. John’s wife died in a fire tragedy, which made him believe that in the randomness of the occurrence of events, meaning that there are no specific relationships of events; everything that happens is purely coincidence. He lived with this belief until the day Caleb received the letter written by Lucinda Emerly (a gifted girl who was used by aliens to predict the future) from the time capsule buried in Caleb’s school 50 years ago. This letter was composed of numbers arranged in a pattern. As John was trying to decode the numbers, he found out that the numbers represent the dates, specific locations, and number of people who died in different tragedies, but there were events that are yet to happen. This urged him to solve the mystery. In the process of unraveling the mystery behind the numbers, John sought Diana, the daughter of Lucinda. Incidentally, Abby, daughter of Diana, also happened to inherit her grandmother’s gift, and like Caleb, she can also hear the voice of the aliens who seemed to be whispering into their heads. Thus, in the movie, the portrayal of the characters was in accordance to what is needed by the prophecy. John is an intelligent professor of science and Caleb is a gifted boy, while Diana and Abby are both related to Lucinda, the one who wrote the numbers. The story of Knowing revolves around these characters each of who play a part in solving the mystery. The two men have the intelligence or information that could be helpful in solving the problem while the two ladies have the history of Lucinda (Blumenthal, Tisch, Black Proyas, 2009). The setting or background used in the film is also important to analyze. A film with a fascinating story, good characters, appealing dialogues, and uniform scenes but was shot in a location not adequate to its portrayal is a disaster. Thus, film directors are careful in choosing shot locations which would enhance not only the cinematography of the film but also the story as a whole. Scientific films mostly have research laboratories as setting; environmental films are set in forest and seas; and horror films are shot in a scary location such as a haunted house. Familiar locations could made films appear realistic and could also establish relationship with the audience. To analyze the setting, one must look at the storyline and the portrayals of actions. Lastly, symbolisms are used in the film to add depth to the story or reinforce the film’s theme. According to Boggs and Petrie (2008), symbols are repeated to emphasize the theme of the film. They could be metaphoric in nature, for their value in the story surpasses the value they normally signify. In films, actors can give specific value of an object to increase its significance to the audience. Critical reception of symbolism in movies depends on whether the symbol is novel or a cliche. In the movie â€Å"Knowing,† numbers are symbols of components (date, location, number of victims) of events that need to be interpreted by actors and the audience. Moreover, the black stones are signs where the solution for the given problem could be found. The hearing aid of Caleb malfunctions when the aliens are near him and when they are trying to communicate something. The Genre To find out whether one is doing the right thing in analyzing the film, one should take into consideration the genre of the film. Genre classification of film could be science fiction, action, comedy, horror, drama, romance, character sketch of a renowned personality, and social or political representation of an issue, among others. The recognition of a film’s genre can help the film critic to distinguish the truths presented in the movie. For film critics, a movie which has lots of symbols and metaphors, is not novel (same old stories), has no originality, and relies too much on cliches is merely a junk. It is also important to note that there are films which cannot be categorized into one particular genre. The movie â€Å"Knowing† falls under the genres science fiction, drama, and action (Blumenthal, Tisch, Black Proyas, 2009).

Transactive Memory System and Creativity of Dutch Designers

Transactive Memory System and Creativity of Dutch Designers Preface The author declares that the text and work presented in this Master thesis are original and that no other sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating the Master thesis. The copyright of the Master thesis rests with the author. The author is responsible for its contents. RSM Erasmus University is only responsible for the educational coaching and beyond that cannot be held responsible for its contents. Abstract This research examines the impact of the transactive memory system on the creativity of Dutch fashion designers, architects and graphic designers. The transactive memory system (TMS) consists of individual expertise of members as well as their knowledge of ‘who knows what and is based on communication. The emphasis in this thesis is given to the retrieval function of the TMS. This function could have an impact on the process of idea generation. In this research a special focus will be on the concept of ‘ba, developed by Nonaka (1994). Central to the ‘ba stands the idea of knowledge creation during interaction. Approximately five hundred designers were sent an online survey about the impact of the environment, knowledge creation and knowledge transfer on the retrieval of information during idea generation. The final number of cases used was 128 and these were empirically investigated using a multiple regression analysis. Results showed that having connections with other individuals did have a significant impact on the creativity of Dutch designers during idea generation (ÃŽ ²=.379 significant at level .001). Furthermore, the use of explicit knowledge showed to have an unexpected positive moderating effect on the relationship between retrieving information and creativity (ÃŽ ²=.202 significant at level .05). However, the other aspects did not show significant results. Chapter 1 Introduction and research topic Introduction ‘The secret to creativity is knowing how to hide your resources Albert Einstein In order to be successful in the creative industry, designers have to be able to deliver what is perceived to be creative. But what is creativity? Many researchers focused on the personality approach; defining creativity as a personality trait. Simonton (2003) argued that creativity has three essential components: person, product and process. These components have to be interrelated in order to recognize creativity. Koestler (1964) proposed that creativity involves a ‘bisociative process- connecting two frames of reference to produce new insight or invention. Amabile et al (2005) mentioned that creative performance can be affected by the work environment in every context; a school, a room, a design studio or organization. Amabile (1983) focused on the process of creativity and identified that social and environmental influences are also of importance in creative performance. She developed a framework, which describes the way in which cognitive abilities: personality characteristics and social factors might contribute to the different stages of the creative process. Social networks are taken as to be one of these social factors. How does this work in the creative industry? Designers must have all of the resources and assets available in order to succeed in todays highly competitive marketplace. But where do new ideas come from? And in what way do these ideas affect creativity? Marlies Dekkers designs her collections based on a different concept than traditional underwear. Every collection is inspired by movies, art or literature. When she has a moment of inspiration, even if it is in the middle of the night, all the members of her designing team receive a text message with her idea. They all discuss this idea the next morning. Rem Koolhaas has been successful architect for more than twenty years. He celebrates the chance-like nature of city life: the city is an addictive machine from where there is no escape. Another key theme in architectural design was introduced by Koolhaas. This notion: the ‘Program, involves an act to contribute to human activities. Over the past 15 years Viktor and Rolf have taken the fashion world by storm with their particular blend of cool irony and surreal beauty. They created The House of Viktor Rolf that presents each of the designers signature pieces from 1992 to now, shown in a specially commissioned and characteristically theatrical installation. They are most well-known for their fantastical and concept driven designs and for their conceptually driven fashion show presentations. Subjects of their work include their analysis of fashion and the fashion industry, the idea of the fashion designer as a story teller, transformation and illusions. Marlies Dekkers, Rem Koolhaas and Viktor Rolf are successful, but are inspired in different ways. It could be interesting to know in what way social relationships affect creativity; what kinds of relationships are part of the process of generating ideas? Family, friends or peers? And within which context and with what means are these ideas shared, transferred or created? Perry- Smith and Shalley (2003) focused on the importance of generating creative ideas and tried to explore the association between the context of social relationships and individual creativity. They argued that informal relationships are more beneficial, in general, than formal relationships for creativity. Informal relationships are not specifically required as a part of the job. These relationships are more likely to provide connections to people with diverse viewpoints and perspectives (Perry-Smith, 2008). Informal ties ease the process of communication rather than formal ties. Conversations with others can therefore not only be a source of ideas, but also a driving force behind creativity. Nonaka Toyama (2003) discuss the potential of these dialogues as they introduce the concept of ‘Ba; a context or place, which can transcend beyond boundaries to create knowledge. Knowledge creation occurs as the actors synthesize tacit and explicit knowledge in social space. Conversations can create new knowledge and enhance creativity. Searching for information and getting inspired is essential during this process. A transactive memory system (TMS) is a collective memory of who knows what. This is a shared system for encoding, storing and retrieving information (Wegner, 1986). The TMS is based on the idea that individual members can serve as external memory to others. Its value is determined by the willingness of members to search for the specific expertise. Members are able to benefit from each others knowledge and expertise if they develop a good, shared understanding of who knows what in the group/unit. They are able to develop deep expertise in specialty areas and they can rely on other members to provide access to others specific knowledge (Lewis, 2003). Retrieving information is a valuable asset of a TMS: individuals with specialized expertise can be found quickly. Designer creativity and the retrieval function of a TMS have not yet been associated with each other; connections to people who are creative or have specific expertise may help individuals be more creative (Perry-Smith, 2008). Therefore the subsequent question will be central in this research: What is the effect of the retrieval function of a transactive memory system on the creativity of fashion designers, architects and graphic designers in the Netherlands? The following sub-questions can be derived: How is a transactive memory system used to generate new ideas? How is a transactive memory system used during the transfer of knowledge? 1.1 Research Objective The objective of this research is to provide some new insights as to how the retrieval function of the transactive memory system (TMS) can have an impact on the creativity of designers. The purpose of this research is to test theory and causal relations. The most appropriate research strategy will be the survey design since we are dealing with probabilistic hypotheses. The numbers of respondents to the survey in this research were 128. 1.2 Thesis structure The next chapter will discuss the theoretical issues, namely the concept of creativity and the transactive memory system. Chapter 3 will justify the chosen research design and the analysis of the results. The general discussion, implications and recommendations will be described in Chapter 4. Part I Chapter 2 Literature Review ‘Everything you can imagine is real Pablo Picasso This chapter will discuss the relationship between the retrieval function of the TMS and creativity as well as different aspects that could moderate this relationship. The first section will explain how retrieving information can play a role during idea generation. The following part will discuss the cognitive elements that could impact this relationship such as absorptive capacity, scanning the environment, the usage of boundary objects and the role of a shared context (‘ba). A conceptual model will be presented at the end of this chapter, displaying the presumed relationships. Introduction Designers operate in a creative environment and are faces with innovative tasks. They should be able to identify trends and changes during idea generation. This phenomenon called environmental scanning can be used to retrieve relevant information. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) argue that the ability to exploit external knowledge is critical during the generation of ideas. They introduce the concept of absorptive capacity, which is the ability to take in and make use of new knowledge. In this way, retrieving information requires prior related knowledge to assimilate this newly acquired information. Sharing information means sharing knowledge. The context in which these interactions take place is crucial. Knowledge is created by means of interaction among individuals or between individuals and their environment. ‘Ba is the context shared by those who interact with each other (Nonaka Toyama, 2003). Thus, designers could retrieve relevant information when participating in a ‘ba. To deliver creative products, designers need to be able to combine and integrate knowledge. They could face knowledge boundaries during interaction. Different boundary objects can be used to manage knowledge across boundaries (Carlile, 2002). The first difficulty that needs to be addressed is the way different types of ‘ba, the environment and the usage of absorptive capacity are related to retrieving information. The second problem that needs to be addressed is how boundary objects are being used dring the generation of ideas. The most common means of identifying creativity has been through its products. In architecture, music, writing, art and even scientific discovery the presence of a creative product is of importance (Akin Akin, 1998) Creativity is generally defined as the production of novel, useful ideas or problem solutions. It refers to both the process of idea generation or problem solving and the actual idea or solution (Amabile, 1983). Drawing on the assumption that novelty is the distinguished feature of creative work, Simonton (1999) focused his theory on variation. In this theory, the process of variation primarily contributes to idea novelty; it is guided by the existence of knowledge elements that are available for combination into new variations within the creators mind. According to Simonton (1999), the initial selection of ideas goes on within the mind of the individual creator, through a process of testing them against relevant criteria for novelty. Once an idea has been selected by the creator, developed, and communicated, there is often a second selection process by relevant individuals in a social group or community. In Simontons view, creativity depends in large part on novelty, and because novelty is largely a function of cognitive variation, interacting with other individuals is likely to increase the probability of creativity. Creativity is a choice made by an individual to engage in producing novel ideas; the level of engagement can vary from situation to situation. In this thesis creativity is defined as thinking outside of general frames of reference that leads to generation of novel ideas, solution to problems, or innovations (Akin Akin, 1998). In order to create a new product, diverse ideas become available from past experiences. In this way, individuals enrich their own knowledge domain with other knowledgeable persons who help them to retrieve and apply knowledge components during idea generation (Taylor Greve, 2006). This means as a conclusion that individual creativity and the ability to deliver innovations depend on interactions in social systems (Amabile, 1996). Relevant ideas can be generated through communication and through the retrieval information from external sources. External knowledge and the interpretation of the environment can be such sources. 2.1 Transactive memory system creativity Creativity does not just play a role in arts, invention and innovation; it also is a part of our everyday life (Runco, 2004). He defines creative thinking in terms of cognitive processes that lead to an original and adaptive insight, idea or solution. What is unique about this definition is the reliance on cognitive processes. This definition assumes that all creative work requires some cognition and that everything we do requires information processing. Creative ideas generated from ones cognitive processes are influenced by the individuals personal experiences. A combination of individual and others knowledge is an ideal means to obtain information and be creative. Strategic management researchers have proposed a knowledge processing view of the firm that emphasizes the importance of social interaction as the process through which knowledge is created and transferred in organizations (Kogut Zander, 1992; Nonaka, 1994). Nanaka Takeuchi (1995) argue that knowledge consists of tacit and explicit dimensions. Explicit knowledge is that which can be expressed in words and numbers. It is easily communicated and shared in the form of hard data, codified procedures or universal principles. In contrast, tacit knowledge is highly personal, difficult to formalize and consist of subjective insights; intuitions and hunches (Davenport Prusak, 1998; Alavi Leidner, 2001). These forms of knowledge are mutually dependent and have qualities that reinforce each other. It is via the process of continual interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge that new knowledge is created. Nonaka Toyama (2003) argue that knowledge creation starts with ‘socialization, which is the process of converting new tacit knowledge through shared experiences in day-to-day social interaction. A transactive memory system (TMS) has been defined as a combination of an individuals knowledge and a shared awareness of who knows what (Wegner, 1986). This represents a ‘divided up into portions type of knowledge sharing. TMS was initially proposed to explain the knowledge residing amongst intimate couples and family members when they are able to bring together disparate knowledge to solve a problem. This means even though the solution to any issue at hand may not be readily available, family members do know how to come together and develop a response. Wegner (1986) explains that members are able to benefit from each others knowledge and expertise if they develop a good, shared understanding of who knows what in the unit/group. TMS is built on the distinction between internal and external memory encoding. Often, individuals encode new (tacit) knowledge internally, in their own memory. However, even more often individuals encode or use knowledge encoded externally. According to Wegner (1986) a TMS can be explained as a set of individual memory systems in combination with the communication that takes place between individuals. He argues that an individuals memory system becomes connected with those of other individuals involving three stages: Directory updating. Directory updating or expertise recognition is the process by which team members learn which topics others know without learning the actual information within each topic. Furthermore, members come to understand their own areas of expertise within the team Communication to allocate information. Communication to allocate information is characterized by a team member using his or her directory of expertise to forward new information outside of his or her domain(s) of expertise (Anand et al 1998). Communication to retrieve information. Although it is important to possess relevant knowledge, the knowledge must also be utilized to be successful. Communication to retrieve information is the process by which individuals seek specialized information from the teams domain expert to help in task completion when their personal knowledge bases are insufficient. A transactive memory system will be most effective when knowledge assignments are based on the members actual ability, when there is a shared understanding between the members and when members fulfill expectations (Brandon Hollingshead, 2004). This research focuses on the process to retrieve information for it is in the retrieval process where usefulness and efficiency of a TMS can be achieved (Wegner et al 1985). This retrieval process could result in the creation of new knowledge. The creation of new knowledge leads us to creativity. Creativity could be seen as a mental event by which an actor intentionally goes beyond his or her previous experiences in order to gain novel and appropriate outcomes; the TMS can help individuals to achieve these outcomes (Pandza Thorpe, 2009). Transactive retrieval requires determining the location of information and sometimes entails the combination or interplay of items coming from multiple locations. This process begins when the person who holds an item internally is not the one who is asked to retrieve it. In transactive memory this can occur when individuals respond to a particular information label and one group member retrieves one item whereas a second member retrieves something quite different. In their discussion it could be determined that two items add up to yet a third idea. These so-called external components of information are not personally known but can be retrieved when required (Anand et al, 1998). If we ask a question to a person who is a well-integrated part of a transactive memory network, this person is often able to answer (after consulting with other network members, of course) with information well beyond his or her internal storage. When team members correctly identify the experts and delegate ta sks based on an individual members expertise, they perform better (Hollingshead, 2000). Brandon and Hollingshead (2004) argue that representation of tasks is critical to the structure of the TMS; the features of tasks are embedded in the transactive memory process. In this way, team performance in terms of creativity may depend on whether the group can correctly recognize and utilize the knowledge of its members (Brandon Hollingshead, 2004). The interaction of different perspectives enabled by a TMS is a large contributor to the discovery of insight and the creation of knowledge (Jehn et al, 1999; Nonaka Takeuchi, 1995; Nonaka Toyama, 2001). As individuals will retrieve relevant information via a TMS, it is probable designers will discover new knowledge and improve creativity. Thus, the following hypothesis is defined: H1: The usage of the retrieval function of the transactive memory system is likely to contribute to creativity 2.2 Interpretation and creating As mentioned in the previous paragraph, creativity is concerned with generating novel outcomes (Pandza Thorpe, 2009). Creativity is defined as the production of novel ideas that are useful and appropriate to a given situation (Amabile, 1983). Cognitive styles are recognized as core characteristics of individual creativity. Cognitive style is a persons preferred way of gathering, processing and evaluating information. It influences how people scan their environment for information, how they organize and interpret this information and how they integrate their interpretations that guide their actions (Amabile, 1988; Woodman et al., 1993). According to Miliken (1990), action involves a response based on scanning and interpretation of information. Choo (1996) argues that the principal information process is the interpretation of news and messages about the environment. Individuals must determine what information is significant and should be attended to. Interpretation involves the development of ways of comprehending information; the fitting of information into some structure for understanding action (Thomas et al, 1993). Interpretation of the environment also requires identifying threats and opportunities (Miliken, 1990); which requires designers to assess the meaning and significance of each trend, change and event they noticed during the scanning phase. During this phase information is gathered. If one has access to more information, it is also important to select information that is useful to interpret issues (Thomas et al, 1993). Another purpose of scanning is identifying the key trends, changes and events in an environment that might affect performance (Miliken, 1990). Monitoring and analyzing the environment enhances the ability to enter new knowledge domains. Information about the environment can be gathered through different channels, such as personal relationships with peers (Danneels, 2008). Daft and Lengel (1986) explain that the interpretation of the environment is the source of information processing. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) argue that the ability to recognize the value of new information using prior knowledge is critical to innovative capabilities. This phenomenon, called absorptive capacity is used to give rise to creativity; using prior knowledge to assimilate and use new knowledge. An amount of absorptive capacity is needed to increase both the ability to acquire new knowledge and the ability to retrieve and use it (Cohen Levinthal, 1990). As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the retrieving function of the transactive memory system could be used to acquire new data, which is combined with the creation of new interpretations about the environment, which in turn can reduce the uncertainty about the environment. Taking the importance of the ability to interact in different contexts, scanning the environment could put some people in more advantageous positions than others to be creative. Some persons are considered to have contacts with individuals in other fields of expertise who may possess or develop knowledge that can have an impact on their current work. Creative individuals who interact with other designers and are aware of trends could be considered to achieve more creative ideas. Individuals can scan the environment and benefit from this novel information flow. TMS can increase this learning process and can act as an interactive mechanism (Austin, 2003). A certain amount of absorptive capacity and environmental scanning could affect the relationship between the retrieval function of the TMS and creativity. Therefore the following hypotheses are defined: H2: high levels of absorptive capacity will moderate the relationship between the retrieval function of the TMS and creativity, such that retrieval is more likely to have a positive relationship with creativity H3: environmental scanning will moderate the relationship between the retrieval function of the TMS and creativity, such that retrieval is more likely to have a positive relationship with creativity 2.3 Boundary objects Interacting to develop a shared understanding can be done using language and other symbols. Individuals articulate what they intuitively know through dialogue and discourse (Choo, 1996). Texts are a variety of forms including written documents, verbal reports, art work, spoken words, pictures, symbols, buildings and other artifacts (Philip et al, 2004). Carlile (2002) define these objects as ‘boundary objects. The notion of boundary objects was first introduced by Star and Griesemer (1989), who described the attributes of boundary objects that enable them to serve as translation devices; they have different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable and function as a means of translation. Boundary objects can adapt to different context simultaneously while maintaining a common identity across all context, allowing each group to decontextualize its knowledge for use in common space and recontextualize it for use in its own practice (Bowker and Star, 1999). Boundary objects are enabled via in going transactions but also enable interaction. Carlile (2002) distinguishes among different types of boundaries- syntactic, semantic and pragmatic- that require different types of boundary objects: Repositories supply a common reference point of data, measures or labels across functions that provide shared definitions and values for solving problems. This object establishes a shared syntax or language for individuals to represent their knowledge. Standardized forms and methods provide a shared format for solving problems across different functional settings. These objects provide a concrete means for individuals to specify and learn about their differences and dependencies across a given boundary. Objects, models and maps are simple but complex representations that can be observed and then used across different functional settings. These objects facilitate a process where individuals can jointly transform their knowledge. A syntactical approach is based on the existence of a shared and sufficient syntax at a given boundary. A common syntax or language is shared between the ‘sender and receiver. Integrating devices are processing tools (repositories) and integration is accomplished through processing information. When novelty arises, the sufficiency of the syntax is in question and another boundary is faced. A semantic approach recognizes that there are always differences in kind and the emergence of novelty is a natural outcome in settings where innovation is required. Integrating devices are seen as processes or methods for translating and learning about differences at a boundary, but when negative consequences are faced, another boundary arises. A pragmatic approach recognizes that knowledge is localized, embedded and invested in practice. This view highlights the negative consequences that can arise given the differences at a boundary. Integrating devices (objects, models and maps) are used to create new knowledge. Sketches can be seen as a pragmatic boundary object during idea generation. In order to move beyond a knowledge barrier, designers can use sketches to communicate and explain their ideas to others. Individuals must be able to alter the content of a boundary object to apply what they know (Carlile, 2002). As novelty of the situation increases, this study argues that designers, who face more pragmatic boundaries, will need boundary objects to see consequences of social interactions with others. In the engineering industry, all the information is expresses in a common framework using 3-D design so that everyone concerned with the project can quickly respond to each other (Baba Nobeoka, 1998). Visual tools, such as sketches, facilitate the processing of novel information and may lead to a faster understanding (Feiereisen et al, 2008). Thus the following hypothesis is developed: H4: the usage of pragmatic boundary objects will moderate the relationship between the retrieval function of the TMS and creativity, such that retrieval is more likely to have a positive relationship with creativity 2.4 Knowledge through ‘ba Information becomes knowledge if it is given meaning through interpretation and interaction. Knowledge exchange cannot simply be a matter of transferring it across groups engaged in different practices; knowledge must be transformed through decontextualization and recontextualization (Spender, 1996) Tsoukas (2002) argues that these mechanisms to interact can be used to predict and guide behavior. These tools can enable a skilled user to get things done and need to become instruments through which we act- of which we are subsidiarily aware- not objects of attention. Objects can be used to ease the transfer of tacit knowledge, since this knowledge is not visible. Tacit knowledge is highly personal and hard to formalize, making it difficult to communicate or share with others. Whereas explicit knowledge can be expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data (Nonaka et al, 2000). The most explicit kind of knowledge is underlain by tacit knowledge (Tsoukas, 2002). Although the tacit knowledge of each individual is personal and unique, it can be absorbed by others through social relationships and collaboration (Mascitelli, 2000). Nonaka (1994) introduced the concept of ‘ba to be specific to knowledge creation in order to include these concept-specific items. According to him, ‘ba can be thought of as a shared space for emerging relationships. This space can be physical (e.g an office), virtual (email, teleconference), mental (shared experiences, ideas) or any combination of them. What differentiates ‘ba from ordinary human interaction is the concept of knowledge creation. According to Nonaka et al (2000), ‘ba provides a platform for advancing individual and collective knowledge. Knowledge is embedded in ‘ba where it is then acquired through ones own experience or reflections on the experience of others (Nonaka et al. 2000). An environment is created, whether physical or virtual, that lends itself to the creation and sharing of knowledge. It can emerge in individuals as well as in teams and is an existential place where participants share their contexts and create new meanings thr ough interactions (Nonaka Toyama, 2003). Participants of ba bring in their own contexts and through interactions with others and the environment, the contexts of ‘ba, participants and the environment, change. A good ‘ba needs participants with multiple contexts and yet a shared context is necessary for a ‘ba to exist (Nonaka et al, 2000). It sets a boundary for interactions among individuals and yet the boundary is open. It is not bound to a certain space or time (Nonaka and Toyama, 2003). When participating in a ‘ba, it is important that these individuals share time and space through their direct experience. As mentioned before a good ‘ba can provide a platform for advancing individual and/or collective knowledge ( Nonaka et al, 2000). A TMS can be seen as a combination of knowledge possessed by individuals and focuses on the utilization of expertise (Hollingshead, 2000; Lewis, 2003; Wegner, 1986). This expertise could be gathered by the retrieval function of the TMS, creating a ‘ba, where during interaction, new insights and new knowledge can be developed and in turn, could enhance creativity. An originationg ‘ba, a dialoguing ‘ba, a systemizing ‘ba and an exercising ‘ba support a particular knowledge conversion process and there by ‘ba speeds up the process of knowledge creation: 2.4.1 Originating ‘ba An originating ‘ba takes place in a world where individuals share feelings, emotions, experiences and mental models. An individual sympathizes or further empathizes with others, removing the barriers between the self and others. It is the primary ‘ba from which the knowledge creation process begins

Recommendations To Make The Organization More Competitive :: Business Analysis

The more competitive corporations are in markets, the less the strategies are available to any corporation. All corporations become reactive rather than proactive, unable to impose their will on the market. They cannot control price, they cannot differentiate their product. Competition denies them the resources to acquire other enterprises. In reality cost positions differ, often significantly, and products are perceived to be different, sometimes so different that some are branded. This generates both the scope and resources needed for acquisitions, aggressive price behavior or a major marketing campaign. The specific recommendations the Board is seeking are how: A. to make the organization more competitive: The main outcome of having a competitive strategy advantage is clear. Such an advantage translates into the positive outcomes of a profits earned by our corporation with above average for the industry, instead of a loss less than that earned by others. It does not necessarily mean an above-normal profit since this depends on the nature of our industry. It is easy to recognize when competitive advantage exists, when an our corporation, is competing with another corporation, for the same customers in the same market, is able to earn either a realized, or potential, profit which is higher than that of competitors, or a loss which is smaller. Provided the accounting is accurate, it is not difficult to identify the corporation with a competitive advantage. The result of a better financial performance is made possible by the key characteristic of any competitive advantage, the greater utility or value given to the customer by an enterprise. Customers buy our service either in greater numbe rs or at a higher price because of this greater advantage. Competitive advantage is then the ability to better satisfy our customers than competitors could. The causes of the existence of such an advantage reflect the combined ability to recognize opportunity and therefore position the corporation accordingly, and produce what is wanted at a cost and therefore a price which is acceptable. Both these abilities are the result of the appropriate application of the core competencies possessed by the corporation. B. to provide high quality customer services: The corporation realization of entrepreneurial goals requires, for its success, adequate, even high-quality management inputs. Many of these management inputs involve specialist knowledge of functional areas. The proportion of entrepreneurs and managers required within an enterprise, or indeed the desirable blend of these characteristics within the same individuals, can vary markedly. Recommendations To Make The Organization More Competitive :: Business Analysis The more competitive corporations are in markets, the less the strategies are available to any corporation. All corporations become reactive rather than proactive, unable to impose their will on the market. They cannot control price, they cannot differentiate their product. Competition denies them the resources to acquire other enterprises. In reality cost positions differ, often significantly, and products are perceived to be different, sometimes so different that some are branded. This generates both the scope and resources needed for acquisitions, aggressive price behavior or a major marketing campaign. The specific recommendations the Board is seeking are how: A. to make the organization more competitive: The main outcome of having a competitive strategy advantage is clear. Such an advantage translates into the positive outcomes of a profits earned by our corporation with above average for the industry, instead of a loss less than that earned by others. It does not necessarily mean an above-normal profit since this depends on the nature of our industry. It is easy to recognize when competitive advantage exists, when an our corporation, is competing with another corporation, for the same customers in the same market, is able to earn either a realized, or potential, profit which is higher than that of competitors, or a loss which is smaller. Provided the accounting is accurate, it is not difficult to identify the corporation with a competitive advantage. The result of a better financial performance is made possible by the key characteristic of any competitive advantage, the greater utility or value given to the customer by an enterprise. Customers buy our service either in greater numbe rs or at a higher price because of this greater advantage. Competitive advantage is then the ability to better satisfy our customers than competitors could. The causes of the existence of such an advantage reflect the combined ability to recognize opportunity and therefore position the corporation accordingly, and produce what is wanted at a cost and therefore a price which is acceptable. Both these abilities are the result of the appropriate application of the core competencies possessed by the corporation. B. to provide high quality customer services: The corporation realization of entrepreneurial goals requires, for its success, adequate, even high-quality management inputs. Many of these management inputs involve specialist knowledge of functional areas. The proportion of entrepreneurs and managers required within an enterprise, or indeed the desirable blend of these characteristics within the same individuals, can vary markedly.

In My Fathers Den Essay

In my Fathers Den, a brilliant example of subjective filmmaking and credit should be given to the director Brad McGann for successfully developing a character who takes a journey through regression. McGann uses a series of flashbacks for Paul to revisit the traumatic past and then back to the obscure present to deal with the outcome of his memories. Brad McGann develops the character Paul, as a man who is lonely and isolated yet mystifying and secretive. He blocks out his emotions completely which makes the audience intrigued to find out what has happened in his past that has made him the enclosed character he is today. The story includes themes found familiar to many New Zealand films, dark family secrets, small-town claustrophobia, the lure of the outside world. â€Å"It’s not so much a whodunit† said McGann, â€Å"but a whydunit†. The film is as much about tone as plot, eloquently describing a world of emotionally damaged characters isolated from each other in stark landscapes. The theme of escapism is consistently grabbing the audiences attention throughout McGann releases details sparingly, constructing his film as a kind of puzzle assembled from pieces of the past and present, with Prior’s attempts to forget his younger days. His use of camera movement adds new information, as flashbacks play a large role in this film. McGanns ability to stitch material together is significant as he doesn’t signal the shift between time periods heavy-handedly, and yet its always clear what is happening and how each new snippet of information contributes to the complex. McGanns use of cinematography is a great example of successful director skills. The use of camera angles and lighting effeteness on the film help create a mood to demand the audiences attention to discover the true identity of each character. McGanns panning of the den, prepares the audience with a flashback, and as a small boy (Paul) with his father the lighting of warmth is portrayed with the effeteness of connection and close feeling with the young boy and his father. Celia’s grief as she console’s Paul for the truth, the warmth of the fire light against Paul’s face makes the audience devoted to feel sorry for him and feel his pain. McGanns successful use of director skills impacts the audiences views on the film â€Å"In my Fathers Den†. This film is carefully crafted, as it is a dialogue for ironic social comment and characters.

The Secret of Ella and Micha Chapter 15

8 months earlier†¦ Ella â€Å"You're not seriously going to climb up that tree, are you?† Micha frowns at me through the dark. He's dressed in a pair of sexy jeans that make his butt look good and his black t-shirt fits him perfectly. â€Å"You're gonna break your neck.† I rub my hands together and give him a devious look. â€Å"You know how much I love a challenge.† From behind him, the moon shines from the sky and his blonde hair nearly glows. â€Å"Yeah, but you're a little out of it right now and I don't think you should be climbing up any trees.† â€Å"I'll be fine.† I wave him off, pushing the sleeves of my leather jacket up. He always worries about me. I like that he does, but it doesn't mean I always listen to him. â€Å"Besides, if my dad catches me coming in, and he happens to be sober, I'm going to get chewed out for sneaking out and being drunk, especially because I was supposed to be on mom duty tonight.† Gripping a branch, I attempt to wedge my foot up in the tree. But it falls to the ground and I grunt with frustration. Micha laughs, shaking his head as he walks around behind me. â€Å"If you break your neck, pretty girl,† he says. â€Å"It's not my fault.† â€Å"You know your nickname for me is not fitting.† I grab the branch again. â€Å"You need to think of a new one.† He sweeps my hair to the side and puts his lips beside my ear. â€Å"It's completely fitting. You're the most beautiful girl I know, Ella May.† Through my foggy brain, I try to process what he's saying. â€Å"Are you trying to be funny?† He shakes his head. â€Å"I'm being completely serious. But there's no need to panic. I'm sure you'll forget all about it by the time morning rolls around.† I bob my head up and down. â€Å"You're probably right.† He laughs again and his warm breath tickles my ear, sending a shiver through my body. I almost turn around, rip open his shirt, and thrust my tongue into his mouth, but I don't want to ruin our friendship. He's all I have at the moment and I need him more than air. So I bottle my feelings up the best I can. He spreads his fingers across my waist where my shirt rides up, making the situation a little awkward. â€Å"Okay, on the count of three I'm going to boost you into the tree. Be Careful. One†¦ Two†¦ Three†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He lifts me up into the tree and I swing my legs up. The bark scratches at the back of my legs a little and the palms of Micha's hands cup my ass as he pushes me up the rest of the way. It makes me giggle. Once I'm up, he climbs up himself. His hands reunite with my waist and he assists me up the tree and into my window. I tumble through it and onto the floor with his quiet laughter surrounding me. â€Å"You're going to regret this in the morning,† he says with laughter in his voice. â€Å"You're going to have a headache from hell.† I kneel beside the window as he steps back out onto the branch. â€Å"Hey, Micha.† I crook my finger at him and he rolls his eyes, but tolerates me and returns to the windowsill. I throw my arms around his neck. â€Å"You're my hero. You know that?† I kiss his cheek. His skin is so soft. I start to move away when his head turns toward me and our lips connect briefly. When he pulls back, I can't read him at all. â€Å"Sweet dreams, pretty girl.† He grins and climbs back down the tree. My head becomes even foggier as I shut the window. Did he kiss me on purpose? I shake the thought away and wrestle my arms out of my jacket. The house is silent, except for the sound of flowing water coming from the bathroom. I head out into the hall, figuring my mom's left the bath running again. She does that sometimes when she's distracted. The door is locked, so I knock on it. â€Å"Mom, are you in there?† I call out. Water swishes from inside and I realize the carpet beneath my feet is sloshy. I sober up real quick, and rush to my closet to grab a hanger. Stretching it out, I shove the end into the lock of the bathroom. It clicks and I push the door open. The scream that leaves my mouth could shatter the world's happiness into a thousand pieces. But the silence that follows it is enough to dissolve it completely. Micha â€Å"What are you so happy about tonight?† my mom questions when I walk into the house. â€Å"I'm as happy as I always am.† I join her at the kitchen table and steal a cookie from a plate. She takes off her glasses and rubs the sides of her nose. There's a calculator, a checkbook, and a whole lot of bills stacked in front of her. â€Å"No, I haven't seen you smile like this in a while.† â€Å"I just had a really good night.† I take out my wallet and hand my mom a couple of twenties and a hundred dollar bill. â€Å"Here, this is what I got for working a weekend at the shop.† My mom shakes her head and tosses the money in my direction. â€Å"Micha Scott, I'm not going to take my son's money.† I throw it on top of the bills and push away from the table. â€Å"Yes, you are. I want to help out.† â€Å"Micha I – â€Å" â€Å"Stop arguing and take it young lady,† I warn with humor in my tone. She sighs, defeated, and collects the money. â€Å"You're a good son. Do you know that?† â€Å"Only because I was taught to be.† I head for my room, but hear a scream from outside. I backtrack into the kitchen. â€Å"Did you just hear that?† My mom's eyes are wide as she stares at the back door. â€Å"I think it came from the Daniel's house.† A billion different scenarios rush through my head as I run outside, hop the fence, and burst into her house. â€Å"Ella!† It's quiet, except for water running upstairs. I dash up the staircase, skipping steps. â€Å"Ella†¦Ã¢â‚¬  My body chills like ice. Ella is standing in the doorway and her mom is in the bathtub filled with red water that's spilling out all over the floor. â€Å"Ella, what happened?† She flinches and then turns to me. Her pupils have taken over her eyes and the look on her face will haunt me for the rest of my life. â€Å"I think she killed herself,† she says numbly and holds out her hands, which are smudged with blood. â€Å"I checked her pulse and she doesn't have one.† I take out my cell phone and call 911. When I hang up, Ella collapses into my arms and stays there, unmoving until the ambulance shows up. She doesn't cry – she barely breathes and it nearly kills me because I can't do anything to help her.